Great Samurai Prints 1

I will treat you all with some great Samurai Prints.

The first print is Endo Kiemon Naotsuga. Warding off a heavy arrow barrage, Endo is preparing to return fire with the severed head of an enemy warrior. The multi hooked weapon above his right elbow is a kumade, or a bear's clutch.

The life cyckle, karma, and reincarnation

Indians tend to worry less that Westerners about missed opportunities, as they believe that what goes around comes will come around again, perhaps in a different guise. Their fundamental beliefs in the continuity of live, and the western notion of ‘seizing the day’ is less current in India than ‘going with the flow.’

The cause of this attitude is the very deep seated belief that what you do in this life will affect you in coming lives. If you had a bad situation in this life, then it may be because of something you did in a previous life. Karma may be good or bad. If I am successful it is good karma: if I have bad fortune it is bad karma. I may do what I can to enhance the influence of good karma or mitigate the influence of bad karma, but ultimately everything that happens in my life is my karma and must be accepted with self-control.

Alongside the belief in karma is the belief in reincarnation. Traditional belief says that we have been born many times and will be born many times more. When we die we are reincarnated according to our karma, what we have done in our previous life. Life on earth is intended to improve our spiritual state by doing well with the good things we have, or working through the harmful things we have done in previous reincarnations. Therefore beggars subsiding in hovels in the center of towns are not a national scandal: it’s just karma. The begum in her stately palace is not socially irresponsible. It’s her karma. If you believe in improvements over many lifetimes, it certainly means you take a long view.

An old proverb sets out the pattern if Indian life. When you are young you grow up and have a family; then you make money to keep your family and yourself in good health. When you are old you stop making money and work to attain wisdom and improve your karma for your next life.

Japanese Youth Hostels

Japan offers a great variety of accommodation including, Ryokan 旅館, private lodging 民宿, and Western style hotels.
Youth hostels are also popular among low budget travelers, and are found all over Japan. You will need to be a member pf a Youth Hostel association, otherwise you may not be able to stay, or you will need to pay extra. Many youth hostels are privately run, but there are some run with government subsidies or even operated by temples. There are various types of Youth Hostels: dormitory only or both dormitory and private rooms: including dinner and breakfast or with just cooking facilities. Some organize tours and other events. Unlike other backpacker hotels, Youth hostels can be strict with regulations such as set checkouts, meals and bath times, and renting regulation sleeping sheets if you do not have one. Youth hostels in Japan used to be much more popular among students in the 1970s that they are now. Many hostels organized meetings for guests at night with activities such as song (with folk guitar), games and dances, providing opportunities to meet others. These "group activities" became unfashionable and gradually many hostels stopped them and at the same time time eased some restrictions such as cleaning pr the method of folding the blankest correctly!

The Shinto Deity Susanowo

Susanowo, the storm god and ruler of the oceans, was a trickster figure in addition to being a demon slayer. After he was banished from heaven, Susanowo descended to earth. There he came upon an old earth spirit weeping with his wife and daughter. The storm god asked why they were grieving. The earth spirit told him that a dragon arrived yearly to devour one of his doughters. When Susanowo asked what the dragon looked like, the earth spirit said it was forked tounged with huge bloody red eyed, eight heads, eight tails, and an enourmous body with a swollen belly. Susanowo took the doughter, Kushi-inada-hime, transformed her into a comb, and put her in his hair. He instructed the earth spirit and his wife to brew some sake. He then told the earth spirit to build a fence with eight gates, and eight benches, each with a vat of sake on top. The dragon came, drank from each vat, became intoxicated, and then fell unconsious. Susanowo slew the dragon in its sleep. He then created a house in the holy city of Idzumo and married the doughter. Together they had many childeren.

Three grounds on which Kotoku Shusui opposed the Russo-Japanese War.

Kotoku Shusui (1871 – 1911)Socialist leader, one of the first proponents of radical political action in Japan. Firstly, In 1903 Kotoku Shusui resigned from his job as a journalist in Tokyo when it announced its support for the Russo-Japanese war and the occupation of Korea. He went on from there to start the anti-war Common People’s Newspaper Heimin Shinbun for which he would soon be imprisoned. He was arguing that patriotism since it had its origins in hatred of the enemy rather than love for ones country was militarism. Though he did allow that there was such thing as a just war, nominating North Americas attempt to abolish the slavery. If a war was for humanity, ethics, and freedom it was justified. The war against Russia was not such war.

Secondly, Kotoku’s had a point in that in the past and would be proven again it would be very costly for Japan to go to war, without bringing any gain at all. He said that neither the Sino-Japanese war nor the boxer rebellion had delivered any profit to Japan. None of the foot soldiers had gained any, only business, high raked officers, and bureaucrats had profited. Higher taxes and increased costs of living was the only result for the working class people. He was concerned by pointing out the link between war and capitalism. Militarism would to dominate Japan after the war. Something Kotoku opposed. Kotoku wrote before the war that chasing Russia out of Manchuria would secure Japans interest by making Korea safe from Russia – but even if the Russians did leave Manchuria it would not be enough. They would then have to be chased out of Siberia, then St Petersburg, and then Europe itself. Kotoku instead suggested peaceful, but large scale emigration to Manchuria, investing capital and settling of land.

Thirdly, Kotoku sought to undermine the official assertion that Japan had to acquire colonies in order to solve its problem with overpopulation. He instead said that colonies benefited no one but politicians and capitalists. War and colonies benefited only the ruling classes and oppressed workers and peasants. He rejected the implication that there was “one nation” or “one national interest”, or that Japan international status could adequately represent its national identity. The prime Minister expressed that this war concerned all Japanese equally as much, but this Kotoku rejected by meaning that there was a great distinction between the masters and servants, meaning that those who wanted war were not the same that had to fight the wars. The rich could easily avoid conscription whilst the majority of the soldiers were poor.

What was the charter oath and why is it significant?

The Charter Oath was promulgated at the enthronement of Emperor Meiji of Japan on 7 April 1868. The Oath outlined the main aims and the course of action to be followed during Emperor Meiji's reign, setting the legal stage for Japan's modernization. It remained influential, if less for governing than inspiring, throughout the Meiji era and into the twentieth century, and can be considered the first of modern Japan. The Charter Oath opened the way for the modernization of the country and the introduction of a Western parliamentary constitution.

The five articles of the Charter Oath were the following:

(1) “Deliberative assemblies shall be established on an extensive scale, and all governmental matters shall be determined by public discussion.”

(2) “All classes, high and low, shall unite to carry out vigorously the plan of government.”

(3) “All classes shall be permitted to fulfil their just aspirations so that there will be no discontent.”

(4) “Evil customs of the past shall be discontinued, and new customs shall be based on the just laws of nature.”

(5) “Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world in order to promote the welfare of the empire.”

Although the articles in the Oath were not laws or legally binding in any way, the promulgation of the Oath was nevertheless an epoch-making event because it implied a complete overthrow of the established social structure and promised a new path for Japan based on modernization, westernization, and democratization.

To conclude, the various Meiji reform programmes could be interpreted as the fulfilment of the promises inherent with the Charter Oath. In point of fact, the goals set out in the Charter Oath were achieved rather successfully to a great extent by the end of the Meiji era.

The emergence of the Russo – Japanese war

The Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905) was a military conflict that had its origin in Japanese and Russian competition over the Korean peninsula.

In the late 1800 hundreds many western nation competed over the wealth in Asia. At the same time as Japan made remarkable effort to become a modern state. Japan was eager to release herself from the unequal treaties imposed by the western powers in order to become an equally as strong player on the world stage. Japan had reasons to occupy Korea which led her into war and victory against China in 1885. As a result China handed over control over Korea and numerous other territories to Japan. International pressure forced Japan to give back Port Arthur to China which later fell in Russian hands. Russia had large military and political presence in Manchuria and parts of Korea, and they increased their military during the boxer rebellion much too Japanese protests. Both sides used diplomatic efforts as to reach an agreement on how to end the Korea questions and the arousing tensions. But all diplomatic relation was broken off by Japan in February 1904, shortly after the Japanese launched an attack against the Russians at Port Arthur. The Japanese forces defeated the Russian in the war, making Japan the first Asian country that had ever defeated a western nation in war.

In 1853 the Commodore Matthew Perry reached Uraga in Japan on orders by the American President to open up Japan for trade. This resulted in the end of to Tokugawa and the beginning of the Meiji Restoration in 1868. What was to follow was a rapid modernisation and industrialisation of Japan never before seen in history. Japans effort to strengthen itself was to gain international recognition in order to remain independent and to abolish the unequal treaties imposed by Commodore Perry. In doing so Japan managed to instead of being subject to colonisation to become a coloniser herself. This development is explained by Jansen that Japan was threatened on all sides by approaching colonisers and Japan had to join the colonisers to secure its own independence. In addition, social Darwinism had in the 19th century emerged as philosophy and Japans ambitions were to climb on the evolutionary ladder to secure its independence. Imperialism were to be the next natural step for Japan to gain access to the resources for the benefit of Japan and therefore begun its expansion on the Asian mainland. In 1894 the Japanese cabinet added as a policy that the acquirement of foreign territory was necessary to keep its independence, the year after Japan attacked China with the excuse to secure Korea’s independence.

The conflict between Russia and Japan can be said to have its roots in the Sino Japanese war. Civil unrest in Korea between rival parties in 1894 supporting either Japan or China forced the Chinese and Japanese authorities to send military reinforcements. Consequently the tension escalated and a declaration of war was made on August 1st. China, now a weak country after being exploited by western powers could not defend herself against the modern Japanese army and it took only until November before the Chinese was driven out of Korea. As a result of the Japanese victory and the signing of the treaty of Shimonseki Japan gained full control over Korea, the Liatong peninsula with Port Arthur, Taiwan, Pescadores islands, the opening of treaty ports, and a war indemnity of 500 million yen. Japan had now joined the ranks of imperialist countries to the fully and they began to regard themselves as belonging to the privileged, civilized nations and should from now be treated according to her newly gained status. Japanese thrill of their victory was however to be short-lived when Russia supported by France and German (the triple intervention) pressured Japan to give up Liatong peninsula which Japan did on May 5th 1895. This was a devastating blow to the Japanese pride as well as the realisation that the western camp was to stand together against any Japanese expansion, especially obvious was this when Russia was granted a 25 year lease of the Liatong peninsula in 1898 where they intended to station its pacific fleet at the ice free Port Arthur. Russia was to appear as Chinas protector against further Japanese influence and on June 3 a treaty was signed to mutually defend each other against potential Japanese aggression.

Both Japan and Russia actively worked to establish spheres of influence. In Japans case priority laid in controlling Korea and Manchuria. The Japanese leadership desire to control Korea was seen as a security measure to defend the Japanese home islands. It was thought that if a foreign power was to gain control over Korea they would gain a strategic advantage over Japan, and Russia was seen as the greatest threat. Similarity, Russia was concerned about Japans expansion on the continent which they saw a threat to the poorly populated Siberia. Russia was rapidly on the move eastwards with the construction of the trans-Siberian railway which was to shake the balance of power in the region. On the economic stage, Russia managed in 1897 to open the Russo-Korean bank which and thus gained control over Koreas domestic finances, a further blow to Japanese attempts of power.

The Boxer rebellion in China in 1900 that caused several uprisings and terror against the colonisers was the effect of the long exploitation of China. They were given the name “Boxers” due to their affiliation with secret societies. This rebellion was to grow large and in 1901 the Boxers attacked and occupied foreign embassies in Beijing. As response and attempted to bring order the so called Eight-Nation alliance which included Russia and Japan was to deploy 20,000 troops in China. Russia took the opportunity to deploy troops in Manchuria to protect its interest there. These troops had been promised to be withdrawn as long there were no disruption, which gave the Russians legality not to take this promise to seriously. This was much disturbing for the Japanese who called for the Chinese to hasten the removal of the Russians from Southern Manchuria, an act that added further tension between the two Countries.

Ito Hirobumi, former Prime minister of Japan went in November 1901 to St Petersburg to mediate a treaty together with Russia. The proposed offer was that, if Japan recognises Russia’s presence in Manchuria Russia should in turn recognise Japans sole rights in Korea. This offer was known as the “Man-Kan Kokan”, simply meaning the exchange of Manchuria for Korea, but his suggestion was however to be declined by Russia. What the Russians weren’t aware of was that the Japanese minister in London, Count Hayashi had begun to negotiate a defensive pact with the British. The alliance that was made official in 1902 meant simply that if any of the two countries got engaged in war the other would remain neutral, but if a third party interfered in any conflict they was to aid each others. Russia could therefore not rely upon any assistance from it ally France in any possible conflict. This gave Japan the power and confidence they needed in the power-struggle against Russia. The Russians must have been very surprised and concerned over the Japanese diplomatic success in Britain.

In the summer 1903 negotiations resumed about the question of Manchuria. Japan now backed by its alliance with Britain was now in a much more favourable position and this was noticeable in the Japanese demands, as they now wanted sole rights over Manchuria as well as restraint on Russian influence in Korea. The Russians ignored the Japanese demands and the Russians tsar’s response “there will be no war because I do not whish it”. Such comment clearly indicates great underestimations of the Japanese strength and determination by him.

Japan broke the diplomatic relations with Russia in February 1904, shortly after the Japanese military attacked the Russian fleet in Port Arthur. The Russians did not expect such bold move by the Japanese and were completely surprised, especially as the official declaration of war was not to be announced until February 10. The war lasted for 18 month and peace talks were held in Portsmouth, USA on July 8, 1905. Japan was represented by Foreign Minister Komura whilst Russia was represented by Sergej Witte, and the American President Theodore Roosevelt acted as mediator in the negotiations. There had been great sacrifices in human lives with some 89,000 Russian and 71,000 Japanese casualties. However, as being regarded as the victor in the war Japan had demanded rights of territory in South Manchuria, Korea, Sakhalin, and access to a number of ports; a Japanese demand for indemnity was raised as well. Most strikingly and important in this conflict was that never before in history had an Asian nation manage to defeat a western power in war and this victory was by many seen as the culmination of what had begun with the Meji restoration. The western camp could no longer ignore the strength and determination of Japan.

In conclusion, Japan was forced to rapidly modernise and develop itself in order to get rid of the unequal treaties imposed by the United States through Commodore Perry. Japan feared that if not a rapid development of the nation was done Japan would follow the same fate as so many other Asian countries, becoming a western colony. As a consequence The Meji revolution gained speed and an ever increasing demand of raw material and manpower was required to keep it up. The Japanese leadership did everything it could to gain international recognition and elevate on the world social ladder. In this era of imperialism Japan thought that the most rapid way to do so was to acquire its own colonies and turned its eyes west to Korea. Japan also feared that the increasing activity in the area and the construction of the Trans-Siberian railway would strengthen the Russians and form a great threat to Japanese interests in the area. Russia on their hand had similar fears of the Japanese activities, and tensions between the nations grew stronger. Russia saw its chance during the boxer rebellion to divert troops to Manchuria with the promise they would be removed as soon as tensions ceased. This caused much disturbance and diplomatic efforts were made in the attempt to remove the Russian troops. The Japanese failed in this attempt, but they succeeded in signing a defensive pact with Great Britain which gave the Japanese security of not having to fight against a third part in a possible war against Russia. Japan who now had built up its military strength saw as the only opportunity to defend its interest in Korea and Manchuria was by attacking the Russians militarily. 18 months later Japan was the winner of the most important war she had ever fought.

19th Century Chinese Immigration in the development of Australian Immigration Restriction Policies

This entry will point out that Chinese people and immigrants have been a predominant part of Australian history and in the formation of Australian immigration policies. They became the target of restrictions made against foreign immigration which peaked with the introduction of the Immigration Restriction Act (1901), also known as the “White Australia Policy”.

Even though immigrants came from many parts of the world it was the arrival of the Chinese and the attitude against them that was to form into this policy as will pointed out. Initially the Chinese were welcomed as servants and as a source of labour as a result of the limited supply of convicts previously used by the colony. Domestic instability and wide spread poverty in China forced many Chinese to seek fortune overseas, including Australia. They were however soon to be regarded as threat to the white Australian society. As diggers on the Australian gold field they were looked upon with suspicion due to their appearance and cultural differences. Riots directed against the Chinese were not uncommon as the competition for work and resources intensified. Public and political opinion against Chinese immigration grew so strong that during the intercolonial conferences of 1881 and 1888 the colonies of Australia passed legislations to uniform and severely restrict further Chinese immigration. In 19th century Australia Sinophobia was an ever present feature. It was widely believed that immigration would tear down the Australian society as the Chinese were seen as a sinister race. It was claimed that they brought bad habits, diseases, immoral behavior among many other preconceptions.

The British were not the first to arrive on Australian shores. The first humans to colonise this vast continent was some 40,000 years ago was the indigenous peoples of Australia, the Aborigines. And it was not until the early sixteen hundreds the Dutch as first Europeans to sight Australia. Captain Cook was to follow the Dutch in the seventeen hundreds. But long before the arrivals of the Europeans the continent had been known by Asians and being subject to international trade long before the establishment of the British penal colonies. In the northern parts of Australia Maccassan fishermen had made annual journeys to fish for trepang, often known as sea cucumber and to trade with the local Aboriginal tribes. The trepang was regarded a delicates among the Chinese, also making it a part of early international Chinese-Australian trading network. One can presume that direct contact occurred but the first reliable account of a Chinese vessel reaching Australia was made in 1751 by a Dutch resident. It may be a bit strange at first but tea and the export of tea from China was to form the first images of the Chinese in the Australian psyche. Tea drinking had risen in popularity and did arrive in wooden boxes made my Chinese labourers. Such boxes became so popular artefacts that Chinese carpenters came to work and produce them in Australia. The image of the Chinese worker was so far a positive one, but this image was however to drastically changing in the years to come.

Previously the Chinese Ch’ing leadership had banned any migration form China. Even though some immigration occurred it was not until the treaty of Nanking in 1842 and the opening of ports after the Opium war (1840-1842), that large scale emigration begun. The driving forces of this emigration were due a number of factors. Southern China had long been affected by wars and disasters leading to great hardships for the people. Ryan describes that many of the emigrants embarked on journeys, often to unknown destinations in the search of a better future. In addition and due to the abolition of the slavery among many of the colonist nations new means for finding labour prompted them to use Chinese labour.

The solution to the labour shortage was to be the so called indentured labour. In the case of Australia who had used convicts to meet the demand for labour the Chinese now became a favourable option, and the first shipment of 100 adults and 20 Chinese children set sail in 1848 with destination Australia. The Chinese that came to work in Australia were subjects to two different systems. First it was the indentured labour system that was introduced to substitute the slavery. It basically meant that a person was bound to work for a contracted period of time, usually for a low wage. The second system was the credit-ticket system where workers were given credit through a series of organisers that arranged contacts, transports, to gain overseas employments. The borrower was then obligated to repay his debt with interest over the time of employment. The average wage for a five year contract was twelve pounds a year, but good worker could earn as much as 24 pounds a year, almost as much as a white worker.

When gold was discovered in New South Wales and Victoria in 1851 an ever increasing demand for contract labourers by gold investors was created. News about the findings of gold was spread to mainland China which in turn set off large scale movement of free and credit-ticket immigrants. The number of Chinese immigrant to New South Wales peaked in 1858 when 12.396 immigrants arrived. In Victoria numbers peaked in 1855 with 11,493 immigrants. Such high numbers of immigrants made the Victorian Government in 1855 to pass an immigration restrictive act to cut short immigrants. Worth to be noted is that acts passed to stop immigration was only pointed towards Chinese immigrants and not the thousands of other European immigrants searching for gold. The Chinese workers were also to be met with hardships and discrimination from the white miners and authorities. The white miners looked at the Chinese as intruders on the fields, and they were seen as scavenger of the gold fields when draining areas previously abandoned by white diggers It was not only aggression acts against the Chinese as competitors of resources, but also against them as a specific race. It was said that the Chinese were filthy, untrustworthy, spread diseases and had unusual customs that were not desirable in Australia. Many miners actively worked to exclude all the Chinese from conducting mining, and rallies were held to agitate against the Chinese. Riots against Chinese took place and one of more infamous riot was the Lambing Flan in NSW in 1860 when a series of attacks of white miners violently drove of the Chinese workers and burned their tents. The white miners had wide support in the society and even newspapers frequently published anti Asian articles. Simultaneously, there were debates in the NSW parliament to restrict further Chinese immigration, and after further riots in 1861 a bill was passed to further limit Chinese immigration.

At the 1881 Intercolonial Conference in Sydney it was discussed how to exclude Chinese immigration in order to come to an end with the racial tensions between whites and non whites. A unified form of restrictions between the colonies was sought after. South Australia was first to pass such legislations, with New South Wales and Victoria shortly after. During the conference it was agreed on four points that Australia should;

a. Britain should follow America's example and re-negotiate its treaty with China.
b. Chinese immigration to Australia should be controlled.
c. This control should be uniform, based on a £10 poll tax plus tonnage restriction.
d. Chinese who were British subjects were to be exempt.

One significant event to shape restrictions against the Chinese was the so called Afghan incident in the same year. The Afghan was a ship carrying a load of a few hundred Chinese that was suppose to land in Melbourne, Sydney, and New Zealand. After protest from passenger with legal documents and rights to enter Australia the supreme court of New South Wales ruled to the favour of those. This incident exposed the many differences and policies among the colonies in having different laws and regulations and calls were made by South Australian Premier Thomas Playford to gather a conference to resolve the matters.

In 1888 during the inter-colonial conference of Premiers held in Sydney much attention was put on how to control the Chinese immigration. As a result a uniform resolution was passed to restrict Chinese immigration to Australia and travelling by a Chinese person already in Australia between the colonies. Worth to be noticed is that before 1888 the Northern Territory had remained the only State or Territory that had not yet introduced specific restrictions against Chinese emigration.

The resolution agreed upon was as follows:

a. The further restrictions of Chinese immigration is essential to the welfare of the people of Australia
b. The necessary restrictions can best be secured through the diplomatic action of the British government and by uniform Australian legislation
c. The conference resolves to consider joint representation to the British government for the purpose of obtaining the desired diplomatic action.
d. The desired Australian legislation should contain the following provisions
(a) That it shall apply to all Chinese, with specific exceptions.
(b) That the restriction should be by limitation of the number of Chinese which any vessel may bring into any Australian port to one passenger to every 500 tons of the ships burden
(c) That the passage of Chinese from one colony to another, without consent of the colony which they enter, be made a misdemeanor
.
Australia of the 19th century did suffer from a great deal sinophobia and Irving describes that the Australian population did find the prescience of Chinese people very strange, considering their dress, language, and social patterns. When the first colonisers reached Australia it was declared Terra Nullius, and this was to remain the official policy throughout the colonial era. As a conclusion to this there was no native population of the land to be considerate with. Australia was to become a fully British white society surrounded by its highly populated Asian neighbors.

Social Darwinism had become a popular study in the 19th century placing the white man on the top of the evolution tree with all other races being below. Contemporary debates often dealt with the question that massive Chinese immigration would become a threat the racial purity of the white population as the Chinese was said to belong to such inferior race in comparison with the white. The main argument to exclude the Chinese was claimed to be their inability to assimilate into a western society. Racial difference was not the only argument to exclude the Chinese. The Chinese were believed to completely undermine the consisting labour structures when working for less and therefore steal employment opportunities for the white workers. Such believes had strong support among politicians including those belong to what was to become the Australian Labor party. Why were the Chinese such a target of racial fear and discrimination among all the other immigrant populations? As previously mentioned they stood out from the rest in their appearance and culture. But they were also stereotyped as being immoral, drug taking, gambling, evil minded people that were there to prey, or to ruin the racial purity of the white Australians. As most of the Chinese were males their presence could have been seen as a threat or competition to white males.

The height of Australian immigrating restriction policies came with the passing of Immigration Restriction Act 1901 that was passed without delay when the Commonwealth was founded and was to remain until 1958. This act was so sly in its way to restrict against immigration when it never mentions race as a mean to exclude any unwanted persons. Instead the controversial dictation test came to be used. It simply meant that any immigration officer could demand the immigrants to write a passage of 500 in any European language, and a language not known to the immigrant would then be used to fail the immigrant. This act was to be so successful that by the 1947 census that 99.75% of the Australian population, aborigines excludes was white. Even though The IRA 1901 was to work against any non white immigration it is understood that it was pure sinophobia that made it become a reality.

In Conclusion, Australian immigration restriction laws were a direct response to the Chinese immigration. Although necessary in the positive contribution of the Australian economy they were met with fears and aggression. Precautions were made to limit their presence and rights on Australian soils with the goal of protect Australian jobs, but equally as much as safety measures to protect the racial purity of the white Australian population. There were present believes that races could not live in harmony and the riots in the gold fields were regarded as confirmation of such statements. Anti Chinese feelings were present among the white and fueled by contemporary media and politicians, resulting in severe immigration restrictions implemented primarily in the intercolonial conferences of 1881 and 1888. The legislation's passed in those two conferences helped to reduce the number of Chinese people extensively. Restrictions against not only Chinese immigration but all non white immigration were to hit the highest point with the passing of IRA 1901 which led to an ever decreasing numbers of Chinese people in Australia. In short it was the labour competition on the gold fields and labour markets that set off the aggression against the Chinese and Social Darwinist influence that had built up a strong consciousness to protect the white race from degenerating Chinese influence.

Counting years in Japanese

In addition to the western way of counting the years the Japanese have a traditional system based on the reign of the Emperors. Thus the year 1993 is also referred to as Heisei 5. There are also 14 national holidays in Japan. One long series of holidays that goes from from the end of April to the beginning of May is known as Golden Week. Golden Week ends with children's day on May 5th, during which parents with boys fly carp banners above their homes. This expresses their wish that their children grow up strong and healthy like carps.

Japanese Colleges and Universities

Including Junior Colleges, there are approximately 1,000 universities in Japan. While mostly are concentrated in large cities, some universities have recently moved their campuses into more rural areas, and a few major universities have decentralized their campuses by locating various departments in different areas. Most campus facilities include libraries, co-op stores, gymnasiums, swimming pools, and cafeterias, and some have university hospitals attached to their medical schools. Housing for students and faculty staff however are limited.

Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess

Amaterasu, the sun goddess is a key figure in the Shinto pantheon. She was associated with Kunitokotachi, the supreme deity who resided atop Mount Fuji, and it is possible that they have the one and the same being. She is also believed to be the direct ancestor of the Japanese imperial family.

The most famous story of Amaterasu tells of a falling-out between her and Susanowo, her brother. Susanowo, the storm god had continually bothered his sister with practical jokes and foolish behavior. When he destroyed Amaterasu's rice fields and frightened her maidens to death, she hid from him in a cave, and the radiance of the sun was withdrawn from the world. Susanowo was the banished by his father Izanagi, and forced to rule the oceans. Meanwhile the world grew dismal and evil spirits ran rampant.

The many earth spirits, or "the spirits of the plants" assembled in front of the cave to try to coax the sun goddess out. They brought many gifts and offerings and began to sing and dance. Amaterasu was curious as to why the spirits were celebrating and peeked out of the cave. A young and beautiful goddess named Uzume was dancing nearby and Amaterasu asked the young deity when she was so happy. Uzume said that there was now a more supreme deity than the Sun Goddess. When Amaterasu questioned her as to who this deity might be, Uzume presented a mirror to the sun goddess: Amaterasu then saw her own image. In the meantime some of the other gods had proceeded in blocking the entrance to the cave. Comforted Amaterasu returning to her throne in the heavens. The sun begun to shine again and order returned to the world.

The first emperor of Japan, Jimmu, who ascended the throne in 660BC is believed to have received the Sacred Mirror (now in the shrine of Amaterasu at Ise) directly from his divine ancestress Amaterasu.


Image: Amaterasu emerges from the Cave, casting Her Divine Light on all beings

Australia and Asia: Historical Perspective

Australia and Asia have long had close ties. Unfortunately it has not always been without historical issues. Australia is in the Asiatic region but for many years it tried to remain as a white outpost of the British empire and the Australian parliament passed the The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 (IRA 1901). This Acts purpose was to exclude non white populations to remain or settle in Australia.

The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 (IRA 1901) was formed on already established racial views of the white settlers in the 17th century. When the Chinese arrived in the 1800s to work in the Australian goldfields tension went high among the white diggers due to the racial views they had over the Chinese and a call for exclusion of immigrants were created. This exclusion was supported by the common belief that the Asian workers would destabilize the Australian economy, being a source of cheap labour for employers. The Chinese were commonly regarded as being filthy, corrupt, and immoral, which consequently contributed to the society as a whole in a negative manner. To justify such believes Social Darwinism was referred to with the view that all races were subjects to laws of nature and by mixing races, one would contaminate the pure white race which would eventually lead to the destruction of the whole society. It is therefore fair to state that the major factors that influenced the framing of the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901 was the already established race relationship between the white and non white population, a fear that immigration would deteriorate the Australian labour market and society, along with the strong political will to keep the society racially white.

Australia has a long tradition of racial prejudice and fear. When British Imperial troops sat foot on Australian shores in late 18th Century and soon after claimed land rights they did so without any concern of the Aboriginal tribes already living there. According to Imperial law, the Aborigines fell out of the category as “users of the land” and Australia was therefore proclaimed Terra Nullius, a land belonging to no one. The Aboriginal tribes were regarded as something belonged to the past and were seen as inferior not only to the British but to the rest of the world’s races. Day explains that it became justified by the British to deprive them any rights of the land, especially as the Aborigines had declined offering of civilization, which was to be interpreted that the Aborigines was unable to become civilized.

Economic factors such as the supply of labour played a major role in the establishment of IRA 1901. Australian labour had first arrived with the shiploads of convicts but as those deliveries declined, contract labourers from the Asiatic countries became sought after and it was not long until the first ship with Chinese labourers arrived in late 1848. With the racial outlook already established the Asian immigrant, predominantly from China who arrived in 1850s faced severe racial prejudice in various forms. There was a strong concern that that a massive influx of Asian immigrants would overflow the continent with cheap labour and undermine the Australian economy. It did not take long before anti-Chinese feelings arose among the white Australian population and as Andrews explain there were fears among the Australian workers that jobs would be lost to cheap Asian labour. Facts were that the Chinese came in great numbers but instead of being seen as a potential asset for Australia they came to be regarded as competitors to the already established white populations. When gold was found in 1851 the Chinese came in larger numbers and by 1855 more than 18000 had arrived to work along side the white diggers.

The Chinese were seen as outsiders and intruders on the fields by the white workers and violence against them increased with their escalating numbers. In 1855 the Victorian Parliament passed “Act to Make Provision for Certain Immigrants” which resulted in that shipmasters could only bring one Chinese worker per tonnage along with a poll of 10 pounds per Chinese person brought over. South Australia was to follow Victoria and passed a similar act in 1857. Another catalyst that created anti Chinese feelings was due to that the Chinese workers sent their earnings back to China instead of letting it benefit the community. They were therefore seen as something like parasites of the land, further adding to the racial injustice directed against them.

The emergence of Social Darwinism as a theory in the 19th century justified the exclusion of non white in order not to contaminate and ruin the white society. Social Darwinism emerged in the 19th century and is based on theory that all are subjects to natural selection, meaning that the weak are diminished and the strong flourish. As described by Curthoys it was believed impossible for non whites to become assimilated into society and they should therefore be excluded. Because they could not be absorb in the society, as a result of their believed racial weakness. It was presumed that in the long term they would create a lower social class in the society and contaminate the Anglo-Celtic community with their lack of moral and Christianity if allowed to stay Similarly it is described by Evans that the Chinese were seen as potential contaminators being regarded as an immoral filthy and inferior race. It was repeatedly debated that no two cultures were able to live in harmony but one would become masters and the other sub servant. Such views are supported by Walker; he explains that contemporary news media backed the opinion that “where Europeans and Non-Europeans occupied the same territory one would inevitably come to dominate the other”. Australia had developed an image of it self as a young strong British nation, and this image was to be nurtured, protected and built upon and nothing was to be standing in its way.

Australian States and territories had all had different immigration regulations but after 1888-1889 a Bill was passed to uniform the state laws which resulted in decline of mainly Chinese immigrants in the country to 29,600 in 1901. This was however not enough and in 1901 the Immigration Restriction Act was passed to further tighten existing immigration laws by the complete exclusion of non whites, and white Australia policy was born. Australian immigration policy had reached full circle with the passing of the Act of 1901 which effectively excluded any person of non European origin. One of the most controversial parts of the Act came to be the dictation test where an immigration officer could demand a written test of fifty words in a European Language by the immigrant. After a non white immigrant passed one European language the immigration officer in charge would demand another one and yet another one until reaching a failing verdict. The reason or justification for implementing such test was that it was not based on race but literacy to discriminate against non European immigrants.

In conclusion the IRA 1901 came into practice by reason of believes that the white Anglo-Celtic were superior to anyone living in Australia before their arrival. This racial view was to be nurtured and used against the arrival of Asian immigrants in 1850s as they were also to be described as an inferior race. They were also accused to parasite on the land and stealing jobs from white Australian workers with their low wages. The Asian immigrants became to be regarded as a contaminator of the Australian race and society and a demand for their exclusion was demanded. Social Darwinism became the tool to justify the exclusion of non white populations from Australia and was used to protect Australians from facing destruction and to protect the future Australia. The IRA 1901 came into practice as a mean of protection for the Australian labour movement and the society of being contaminated by an inferior race. The IRA 1901 with including dictation test also meant that Australia was to remain a predominately white society.

SHOGUNS, SAMURAI AND CIVIL WARS

In 1159 a bloody civil war known as the Heiji War broke out in Japan between two powerful clans, the Taira and Minamoto.
The Taira were victorious in the Heiji War and they controlled the government of the country for 26 years. However, the Minamoto rose again and regrouped to defeat the Taira in 1185. Yoritomo, leader of the Minamoto clan became the most powerful man in Japan and set new headquarters of the government in the city of Kamakura. The Emperor continued to act as head of the government in Kyoto, but he was effectively powerless. For almost the next 700 years, until 1868 military commanders such as Yoritomo were the real rulers of Japan. They were known by the title SEI I TAI SHOGUN, an army term meaning Great General Subduing the Barbarians.

Between 1185 and 1600 there were a great many wars as rival nobels, known as daimyo fought to become Shogun. Some Emperors also tries unsuccessfully to restore imperial rule. During this troubled time in Japanese history, Emperors, Shoguns, and Daimyo all relied on armies of well-trained Samurai to fight their battles. The Samurai were men from noble families and they were skilled at fighting battles. Members of each Samurai army were bound together by a solemn oath, sworn to their lord. They stayed loyal from a sense of honor and because their lord gave them rewards. The ere of civil wars ended around 1600 when the Tokugawa dynasty of Shoguns came to power. From this time onwards , Samurai spent less time fighting . Instead they served their lords as officials and business managers.

Chinese medicine and science

From the Chinese empires first days, Chinese scholars published studies on medicine, astronomy and mathematics. The Chinese system on medicine had a similar aim to that of Daoist teachings, in that it attempted to make the body work harmoniously. The effects of all kinds of herbs, plants and animal parts were studied and then used to produce medicines. Acupuncture, which involves piercing the body with fine needles was practiced from about 2700BC. It was believed to release blocked channels of energy and so relive pain.

The Chinese were also excellent mathematicians, and from 300BC they used a decimal system of counting based of tens. They may have invented the abacus, an early form of calculator as well. In about 3000BC, Chinese astronomers produced a detailed chart of the heavens carved in stone. Later they were the first to make observations of sunspots and exploding stars.

Find more information about Chinese medicine here: The Australian Acupuncture and Chinese Medicine Association Ltd (AACMA)

CHINESE RELIGIONS, BELIEFS AND SOCIETY

"Three teachings flow into one" is an old Chinese saying. The three teachings are Daoism, Confucianism and Buddhism. In China they gradually mingled together over the ages.

The first Chinese peoples believed in various gods and goddesses of nature, in spirits and demons. The spirits of nature and the flow of life inspired the writings which are said to be the work of Laozi (born c, 604BC). His ideas formed the basis of the Daoist religion. The teachings of Kong Fuzi (Confucius) come from the same period of history but they stress the importance of social order and respect for ancestors as a source of happiness. At this time another great religious teacher, the Buddha was preaching in India. Within 500 years Buddhist teachings ha reached China, and by the Tang dynasty (AD618-906) Buddhism was the most popular religion. Islam arrived at this time and won followers in the northwest. Christianity also came into China from Persia, but few Chinese were converted to this religion until the 1900s.

The river valleys and coasts of China have always been among the most crowded places on Earth. Confucius, with his love for of social order, had thought that this vast society could be divided into four main groups. At the top were the nobles, the scholars, and the land owners. Next came the farmers, including even the poorest peasants. These people were valued because they worked for the good of the whole nation, providing the vast amounts of food necessary to feed an ever-increasing population. In third place were skilled workers and craftsmen. In the lowest place of all were the merchants, because Confucius believed they worked for their own profit rather than for the good of the people as a whole. However, the way in which Chinese society rewarded these groups in practice did not fit the theory at all. Merchants ended up becoming the richest citizens, lending money to the upper classes. In contrast, the highly valued peasants often led wretched life, losing their homes to floods and earthquakes or starving in years of famine.