SHOGUNS, SAMURAI AND CIVIL WARS

In 1159 a bloody civil war known as the Heiji War broke out in Japan between two powerful clans, the Taira and Minamoto.
The Taira were victorious in the Heiji War and they controlled the government of the country for 26 years. However, the Minamoto rose again and regrouped to defeat the Taira in 1185. Yoritomo, leader of the Minamoto clan became the most powerful man in Japan and set new headquarters of the government in the city of Kamakura. The Emperor continued to act as head of the government in Kyoto, but he was effectively powerless. For almost the next 700 years, until 1868 military commanders such as Yoritomo were the real rulers of Japan. They were known by the title SEI I TAI SHOGUN, an army term meaning Great General Subduing the Barbarians.

Between 1185 and 1600 there were a great many wars as rival nobels, known as daimyo fought to become Shogun. Some Emperors also tries unsuccessfully to restore imperial rule. During this troubled time in Japanese history, Emperors, Shoguns, and Daimyo all relied on armies of well-trained Samurai to fight their battles. The Samurai were men from noble families and they were skilled at fighting battles. Members of each Samurai army were bound together by a solemn oath, sworn to their lord. They stayed loyal from a sense of honor and because their lord gave them rewards. The ere of civil wars ended around 1600 when the Tokugawa dynasty of Shoguns came to power. From this time onwards , Samurai spent less time fighting . Instead they served their lords as officials and business managers.

Chinese medicine and science

From the Chinese empires first days, Chinese scholars published studies on medicine, astronomy and mathematics. The Chinese system on medicine had a similar aim to that of Daoist teachings, in that it attempted to make the body work harmoniously. The effects of all kinds of herbs, plants and animal parts were studied and then used to produce medicines. Acupuncture, which involves piercing the body with fine needles was practiced from about 2700BC. It was believed to release blocked channels of energy and so relive pain.

The Chinese were also excellent mathematicians, and from 300BC they used a decimal system of counting based of tens. They may have invented the abacus, an early form of calculator as well. In about 3000BC, Chinese astronomers produced a detailed chart of the heavens carved in stone. Later they were the first to make observations of sunspots and exploding stars.

Find more information about Chinese medicine here: The Australian Acupuncture and Chinese Medicine Association Ltd (AACMA)

CHINESE RELIGIONS, BELIEFS AND SOCIETY

"Three teachings flow into one" is an old Chinese saying. The three teachings are Daoism, Confucianism and Buddhism. In China they gradually mingled together over the ages.

The first Chinese peoples believed in various gods and goddesses of nature, in spirits and demons. The spirits of nature and the flow of life inspired the writings which are said to be the work of Laozi (born c, 604BC). His ideas formed the basis of the Daoist religion. The teachings of Kong Fuzi (Confucius) come from the same period of history but they stress the importance of social order and respect for ancestors as a source of happiness. At this time another great religious teacher, the Buddha was preaching in India. Within 500 years Buddhist teachings ha reached China, and by the Tang dynasty (AD618-906) Buddhism was the most popular religion. Islam arrived at this time and won followers in the northwest. Christianity also came into China from Persia, but few Chinese were converted to this religion until the 1900s.

The river valleys and coasts of China have always been among the most crowded places on Earth. Confucius, with his love for of social order, had thought that this vast society could be divided into four main groups. At the top were the nobles, the scholars, and the land owners. Next came the farmers, including even the poorest peasants. These people were valued because they worked for the good of the whole nation, providing the vast amounts of food necessary to feed an ever-increasing population. In third place were skilled workers and craftsmen. In the lowest place of all were the merchants, because Confucius believed they worked for their own profit rather than for the good of the people as a whole. However, the way in which Chinese society rewarded these groups in practice did not fit the theory at all. Merchants ended up becoming the richest citizens, lending money to the upper classes. In contrast, the highly valued peasants often led wretched life, losing their homes to floods and earthquakes or starving in years of famine.